Manifest Destiny: A Historical Overview
Manifest Destiny, a term coined in 1845, encapsulates the belief in the inevitable expansion of the United States westward to the Pacific Ocean and beyond. This ideology played a crucial role in shaping U.S. territorial acquisitions before and after the American Civil War. It was a concept deeply rooted in the American psyche, justifying the annexation of vast lands and shaping foreign policy decisions well into the late 19th century.
Origins and Early Expansion
John L. O’Sullivan, a Democratic Party magazine editor, first introduced the phrase “Manifest Destiny” in 1845 while advocating for the annexation of Texas and American expansion. Although O’Sullivan’s initial mention was a mere complaint against European interference, his later writings imbued the term with a sense of divine mission, suggesting that American expansion was preordained by Providence.
During the 19th century, this belief fueled the acquisition of territories such as Oregon, Texas, New Mexico, and California. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and subsequent treaties and wars, including the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), dramatically increased U.S. landholdings, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Manifest Destiny and Controversy
Despite its widespread appeal, Manifest Destiny was not without its critics. The Whig Party, for instance, derided the concept as belligerent and arrogant, while notable figures like Massachusetts Rep. Robert Winthrop used the term mockingly. Yet, it resonated with many Americans who saw it as a justification for their expansionist desires.
The relentless push westward often led to conflicts and displacement of Native American tribes. Policies like President Andrew Jackson’s Indian Removal Act of the 1830s resulted in tragedies such as the Trail of Tears, highlighting the human cost of this expansionist ideology.
The Civil War and a Brief Hiatus
The Civil War (1861-1865) temporarily stalled the expansionist fervor as the nation grappled with internal divisions. However, the idea resurfaced briefly with the purchase of Alaska in 1867. The period also saw increased interest in establishing American influence overseas, exemplified by the annexation of Hawaii and the Spanish-American War in the 1890s.
The New Manifest Destiny
By the late 19th century, the United States had emerged as a burgeoning industrial power. Influenced by naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan’s ideas on sea power, America pursued a “New Manifest Destiny,” focusing on overseas expansion. This era saw the U.S. acquiring territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, signaling a shift from continental to global ambitions.
Conflicting Views and Legacy
Historians have long debated the origins and implications of Manifest Destiny. Frederick Jackson Turner’s 1893 essay suggested that the frontier shaped American character and exceptionalism. However, later scholars, known as New Western Historians, challenged this view, emphasizing the role of government and corporations in dispossessing indigenous peoples and questioning the notion of American exceptionalism.
Causes and Effects of Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny, a term coined in the mid-19th century, encapsulated the belief that the United States was destined by Providence to expand its territory across North America. This doctrine had profound causes and far-reaching effects, shaping the history and development of the United States.
Causes of Manifest Destiny
Westward Expansion
The drive for westward expansion was ingrained in American culture from the earliest colonial days. English settlers who colonized North America were determined to conquer the vast wilderness to the west, driven by a desire for new land and opportunities.
The Louisiana Purchase
In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States, igniting a fervor for westward movement. This massive acquisition of land spurred settlers to venture beyond the original colonies, seeking new opportunities and fueling the belief in Manifest Destiny.
Government Intervention and Territorial Annexation
As settlements spread along the country’s borders, friction with neighboring territories and indigenous populations increased. The U.S. government often intervened, leading to the annexation of additional territories. This expansionist policy was seen by many Americans as a divine mission to extend the nation’s boundaries.
Divine Providence
Many Americans believed that it was God’s will for the country to expand. This sense of divine mission provided a moral justification for the pursuit of Manifest Destiny, reinforcing the idea that the United States was destined to spread its values and civilization across the continent.
Influence of Government and Corporations
Historians have highlighted the significant role played by the government and powerful corporations in the pursuit of land and resources. These entities had the capability to overwhelm indigenous populations and secure vast territories for settlement and economic exploitation.
Military Strength
The late 19th century saw a resurgence of Manifest Destiny, driven by the United States’ growing military strength. This second wave of expansion extended American influence beyond the continental borders, further solidifying the nation’s imperial ambitions.
Effects of Manifest Destiny
Territorial Expansion
By the end of the Mexican-American War in 1848, the United States had extended its sovereignty from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and from the 49th parallel on the Canadian border to the Rio Grande in the south. This expansion fulfilled the vision of a transcontinental nation.
Impact on Indigenous Populations
The westward expansion had devastating effects on indigenous populations. Armed conflict, forced relocation, and the encroachment of settlers led to significant suffering and displacement of Native American communities.
Settlement and Development
The sparsely populated western regions were rapidly settled by hundreds of thousands of Americans. These settlers established new communities, contributing to the nation’s growth and development. The new territories provided access to vast natural resources and opportunities for economic expansion.
Access to Resources and Trade
The acquisition of new territories gave the United States access to greater natural resources and opened up the Pacific trade routes. This economic boon helped propel the nation’s industrial growth and increased its global influence.
Revival of the Slavery Debate
The expansion into new territories reignited the contentious debate over slavery. The question of whether new states would permit slavery exacerbated sectional tensions and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861.
Overseas Expansion
The second wave of Manifest Destiny in the late 19th century led to the American acquisition of territories beyond continental North America. This period saw the United States asserting its influence in regions such as Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, marking the country’s emergence as a global power.
Manifest Destiny Key Facts
Manifest Destiny, a significant concept in U.S. history, refers to the belief in the inevitable expansion of the United States’ borders westward across the North American continent to the Pacific Ocean and beyond. This ideology, which took root in the 19th century, spurred extensive territorial expansion and played a critical role in shaping American history.
Origins of the Term
The term “Manifest Destiny” was first used in 1845 by John L. O’Sullivan, an editor and prominent advocate for American expansion. O’Sullivan introduced the phrase in an essay published in the July-August issue of The United States Magazine and Democratic Review. He argued for the annexation of Texas and criticized European interference in American expansion. He referred to America’s “manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.” The phrase gained wider attention when O’Sullivan used it again in a column for the New York Morning News on December 27, 1845.
Meaning and Implications
The term “manifest” means clear or obvious, while “destiny” refers to events that are certain to happen in the future. Thus, Manifest Destiny implied that American expansion was both clear and inevitable, driven by divine providence. This belief became a powerful rallying cry and justification for U.S. territorial expansion throughout the 19th century.
Early Expansion Efforts
Westward movement had been a part of American history since English colonization. President Thomas Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which doubled the size of the country, fueled the desire for further expansion. By the mid-1800s, Manifest Destiny had become a slogan for U.S. foreign policy, particularly among Democrats who saw it as God’s will for the nation to expand westward.
Political and Social Controversies
Manifest Destiny was not universally accepted. Many Americans, particularly those in the Whig Party, opposed the concept. Some had humanitarian concerns about relocating already settled Native American nations, while others doubted the country’s ability to govern such a vast empire. Despite these objections, the belief in Manifest Destiny continued to drive American expansion.
Key Territorial Acquisitions
- Oregon Country: In the 1840s, the United States and Britain resolved a land dispute in western North America, establishing the 49th parallel as the boundary between the U.S. and Canada, making the Oregon Country a U.S. territory.
- Mexican-American War: The U.S. victory in the Mexican-American War (1846-48) and the subsequent Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo resulted in the acquisition of over 525,000 square miles of Mexican territory. This land included present-day Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and western Colorado.
- Westward Migration: Hundreds of thousands of Americans traveled west via routes like the Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, and Mormon Trail, seeking land and new opportunities.
Revival and Decline
The acquisition of new western territories reignited debates over slavery, eventually leading to the American Civil War. The era of Manifest Destiny came to an abrupt close due to these sectional conflicts. However, the concept experienced brief revivals, such as the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867.
The New Manifest Destiny
In the late 19th century, a “New Manifest Destiny” emerged, extending American influence beyond North America. The Treaty of Paris in 1898, which ended the Spanish-American War, resulted in the U.S. acquiring Spanish territories in the western Pacific and Latin America. The same year, the United States annexed Hawaii, further expanding its reach.
Conclusion
Manifest Destiny was a driving force in American history, rooted in a belief in divine providence and the inevitability of westward expansion. Its impact was profound, leading to significant territorial acquisitions and shaping the nation’s development. Despite its controversies and the human costs involved, Manifest Destiny remains a defining element of America’s historical narrative.
